Is This An Overview?
SPQR refers to The Senate and People
of Rome. With this book showing the
political and social aspects of Rome.
How the politicians and people influenced Rome, and lived their lives. Roman culture was very inclusive. Willing to incorporate outsiders. Anyone could become a citizen of Rome. Even the senate became multicultural. Rome developed the values of the Republic
over time, and became less tolerant of those with too much power. Although only those with financial means
could become politicians, they could not get into power without the
people. It was the people who elected
politicians, and made laws.
Even in their
mythological history, Rome has a political culture of civil conflict. Transferring power over violence and
death. As Rome expanded, Rome relied
more on individual’s power. Producing
rivalries that threatened the Republic.
Gradually turning violence more against Rome than a foreign power. Eroding peaceful politics. The political and social unrest incentivized powerful
individuals to move the public political process, into their private decision
making. Ending the Republican
government, values of liberty, which facilitated the rise of the emperors. Emperors did provide a stable structure, but
they also changed how politics and society affected each other.
SPQR stands for Senatus PopulusQue Romanus, which means The
Senate and People of Rome.
How Much Of Roman History Is Known?
Much of Roman history is shrouded in mystery and
uncertainty. Mythology bridges the gap
between the unknown and what Romans perceived to be the past. A past composed of their own interpretations. History becomes a reflection of how the Roman
people perceived themselves, and explained their contemporary behavior. Sources that do exist are limited, for they
provide their own biases and interpretations.
Detailed information begins to be documented during the 1st
century BCE. During this era, the Romans
started to systematically study their history and culture. Much of what is known about the past, even
before the 1st century, comes from the Romans during the 1st
century.
The author challenges many of the claims being made, and
shows the variety of explanations.
Showing the different sides to a narrative.
How Did Rome Expand?
There is uncertainty about the motivations of Roman
expansion and conquest. Later Romans
consider it their obligation to expand, but those were not the original
claims. Rome was claimed to have
expanded unintentionally. Romans insisted
that the expansion came from a series of just wars. Wars that the gods supported, were in
self-defense or defense of an ally, or for those who asked for Rome’s
help. That the wars were not due to
aggression.
Rome has faced various dangers and defeats. Opponents foreign and domestic. Rome has generally been involved in
conflict. Rarely was there a time of
peace. Enormous resources were used for
war, and paid for with a lot of human life for even victorious conflicts. Wars were not paid just by public funds, but
by private funds. Rather than accept
defeat, they used citizens and allied powers to continue fighting wars. The more powerful Rome became, or perceived
to be, the more various warring states sought Rome as an ally and for
influence.
War had made Rome the richest region of the known world by
mid-2nd century BCE. Captives
became slave labor which could then be exploited to fuel economic growth.
The people conquered by the Romans were not necessarily
innocent people living in peaceable harmony.
Although the viciousness of Roman conquest was recognized even by the
contemporaries.
Those who came under Roman control, were required to provide
troops for the Roman army. There were no
occupying forces, or a Roman-imposed government. This tactic was used, in part, because it was
the least labor intensive. This system
of alliances enabled defeated enemies to be part of the Roman military machine,
while also giving them a share of the Roman enterprise as the booty and glory
was shared in a victory.
Who Could Become A Roman Citizen?
Rome was a welcoming place even from their mythological
origins. Rome was an asylum and welcome
to all, no matter if they were foreigners, criminals, or runaways. Rome was willingness to incorporate outsiders. All could become citizens. People of the conquered territories were
gradually given Roman citizenship with all the rights and protections
associated. Roman senate also gradually
became a multicultural body.
Slaves were not given a life sentence, and could even be
given their freedom or they themselves could buy their freedom. At which point they became Roman citizens,
without any disadvantage of their previous status.
Roman power made Roman culture aspirational to others. This enabled inclusion of Roman values to
other people, and fostered stable Roman rule.
What Defined The Roman Politician During The Republic Era?
Senate could decree, but did not have the force of law. They advised the consuls. The influence of the people is not fully
known, but only the people could elect political officials, and the people made
law.
It was expensive to become a dominant politician, to obtain
the consulship. Requiring generosity
that is not readily distinguished from bribery.
The successful politician could recoup their costs with legal or illegal
perks of office. The failures fell
further into debt.
The rich could have united to determine results without the
poor, but the rich were rarely united, and the elections were competitive. Political culture required the popular
voice. The wealthy sought office which
depended on popular election, on obtaining votes from people who did not have
the financial means to stand for themselves.
Political ancestry carried weight. Reputation and fame depended on word of mouth
and publicity. Many used artists to
write tributes, such as poems.
For the Roman Republic, king was a loathing term, even
thought many defining institutions were borne during the regal period.
As Rome became more republican, the privileges of the elite,
the patricians were eroded. Strikes and
mass violence gradually equalized their status, and the major offices were
opened up to the lower class, the plebeians.
What Turned The Republic Into An Empire?
A major dilemma for Roman political culture was balancing
individual achievement with how the elites shared power. As Rome expanded, Rome relied on individuals
whose power and rivalries threatened the Republic’s political values. Over time, conflict turned against other
Romans rather than foreign enemies. It
was a gradual destruction of peaceful politics.
To gain political power, violence replaced the ballot box.
Pompey was a major figure who can claim to be the first
emperor, given the independent power that Pompey wielded. Along with honors and status given to
Pompey.
Against increasing political and social disorder, three
politicians made an informal deal.
Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. They took public policy and turned them into
private decisions. They chose the
consulship, military commands, and other key decisions. It is claimed that the Republican government
fell not when Caesar and Pompey became enemies, but when they became
allies. A political process that was determined
behind the public was seen as worse than the open violence of before. When the civil war began with Pompey and
Caesar on opposing sides, the choice was not between a freedom fighter and
autocrat. As both were autocratic. No matter which side won, meant slavery for
Rome.
Caesar pardoned rather than punished enemies, which was
against Republican tradition. This
provoked opposition rather than gratitude.
The ability to show mercy was a monarchical one. Only those with power can exercise mercy. For Rome, this was against liberty. Removing the tyrant Caesar did not dispose of
tyranny.
What Happened When Rome Became An Empire?
Majority of Romans preferred Caesar’s reforms which
supported the poor, over the ideas of liberty which were seen as an excuse for elite
self-interest to continue exploiting the underclass.
Under Augustus regime, Augustus influence reduced the value
of the popular democratic process. Augustus
does not appear to have abolished anything.
The governing class remained the same, and the senate was enhanced. Augustus appeared to be very generous, which
shifted people’s relationship with power.
People began to see the emperor as their patron, a protector and
benefactor.
Augustus ensured that no private army could be raised. Augustus monopolized the military force, but
the regime was not a military dictatorship.
Augustus army pension reform severed the dependence and personal loyalty
between army and individual commanders.
Army employment terms and conditions were standardized, with the public
paying the expense. This created its own
problems, for the armies were expensive to maintain.
Free elections meant that politicians were dependent on the
people. But with an emperor, politicians
needed to gain approval of the emperor rather than the people. Politicians no longer needed to attract the
support of the people. Decisional
hierarchy was made clear with an emperor.
The emperor needed to approve matters even in the provinces. Even minute details needed the emperor’s
attention.
Emperors provided a stable structure. A stable set of problems and tensions. Focused less on conquest and expansion, and
more on management and taxes.
Caveats?
The focus of the book is on the uncertainty about Roman
history, not what is known. The reader
can get lost in what is and is not known about the Roman people. The different views and interpretations of
the events provide for an understanding of how the Roman people defined
themselves, but lack the specific reasons for events.
This book covers a long period of time. Sometimes covering a few events, their
uncertainty, and different interpretations.
Sometimes covering a lot of events with brief descriptions.
